The World’s 1st artificial trachea (Synthetic Organ)

This artificial trachea was created from stem cells in 2011, then transplanted on Andemariam Beyene who was suffering from tracheal cancer. Now Beyene is in a very good condition after the transplantation surgery which took place at Karolinska University Hospital - Sweden.

Why People Smoke?

Smoking is a complex behavior that is initiated and maintained for different reasons. External factors such as the influence of peers, parents, and the media appear to be most important in the initiation of smoking. Adolescents whose parents and friends smoke are more likely to begin smoking. Once the smoking habit is established, it is sustained by both biologic and psychosocial factors.

Nicotine is the constituent of tobacco smoke that is responsible for causing physiological dependence on cigarettes. Chronic nicotine exposure produces changes in the brain, such as the upregulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which lead to tolerance and a craving for cigarettes when smoking stops. Smokers smoke to maintain a constant level of nicotine to avert the nicotine withdrawal syndrome, symptoms of which include restlessness, irritability, impatience, difficulty concentrating, an anxious or depressed mood, and an increased appetite. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms begin within a few hours of smoking cessation, peak 48 to 72 hours later, and gradually wane over weeks. The duration and the severity of nicotine withdrawal are highly variable, representing different degrees of nicotine addiction among smokers. No biochemical test can measure nicotine addiction, but heavily addicted smokers tend to have their first cigarette shortly after arising (i.e., within 30 minutes), smoke more cigarettes per day, and have difficulty when forced to abstain from cigarettes for even a few hours. This model of pharmacologic dependence can explain the initial difficulties that smokers have when they stop smoking but cannot alone explain why smokers have difficulty remaining abstinent after the first few weeks.

Cigarette smoking is also a habit, a learned behavior that continues because it is rewarding to the smoker. Certain repeated situations, such as finishing a meal, become strongly associated with smoking and trigger the urge to smoke. Cravings for cigarettes, which are produced by a combination of learned associations and physical changes in the brain, last longer than nicotine withdrawal symptoms and can trigger both early and late relapses in smokers who stop smoking. Smokers also use cigarettes to handle environmental stress and regulate emotions, especially strong negative emotions like anger or frustration. There is a strong epidemiologic association between depression and smoking. Smokers are much more likely than nonsmokers to have a current or past history of depression. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms are more intense in smokers with comorbid depression or depressive symptoms, and stopping smoking can trigger or worsen depressive symptoms in smokers with a depression history. This may explain the observation that smokers with depression are less likely to succeed at quitting.

Things you need to know about Alcohol.

Alcoholism is an inexact but popular term, encompassing two distinct conditions: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. Alcohol use in excess of “drinking in moderation” is epidemiologically associated with excess morbidity and mortality. 


The rates of abuse and dependence in persons 18 to 29 years of age are twice those for the nation as a whole. The overall estimated societal costs of alcohol-related health problems, lost productivity, crime, accidental deaths, and fires are staggering (>$185 billion). The estimated direct cost of treatment for alcohol problems and medical consequences approaches $26 billion, with more than $18 billion for medical care alone.

Drinking in Moderation

The behavioral hallmark of moderate drinking is that it is under easy voluntary control. With the caveat that a given dose of alcohol affects different people differently, drinking in moderation may be defined quantitatively as on average two or fewer drinks per day for men and one or fewer for women and the elderly. Furthermore, for drinking to be “moderate,” no single episode of drinking should exceed four drinks for men or three drinks for women, where a standard drink contains roughly 12 g, 15 mL, or 0.5 oz of alcohol (which is the approximate content of 12 oz of beer, 5 oz of wine, or 1.5 oz of liquor, respectively)

Alcohol Dependence

Alcohol dependence is defined as a maladaptive pattern of use, resulting in substantial distress or dysfunction, characterized by at least three of seven symptoms that include tolerance, withdrawal, unsuccessful attempts at cutting down, and preoccupation with and recurrent use of alcohol despite adverse consequences in important areas of life. Patients drink more than they intend and may give up important activities because of drinking. Most problem drinkers are employed, employable, or in families, indicating that the scope of the problem extends far beyond those who meet formal diagnostic criteria.

Causes and Risk Factors

The causes of alcohol abuse and dependence are incompletely understood, but the etiology is clearly multifactorial. Biogenetic, sociocultural, psychological, and behavioral influences have been identified. No single factor accounts for all manifestations, but attention to each contributes to a better understanding the problem.

Medical Complications

The risk of organ damage is related in part to the dose and duration of alcohol exposure, with some conditions (e.g., alcoholic cardiomyopathy, fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, or anemia) manifesting reversibility with abstinence, and others (e.g., cirrhosis or neuropathy) seeming to progress inexorably once organ damage has occurred. Predicting the risk of irreversible organ damage is imperfect; occasionally, resilience is afforded by abstinence and good nutrition. Risk appears to be a function of genetic predisposition, alcohol dose, and chronicity of exposure.

Increases in the risks of breast cancer and osteoporosis are associated with drinking on average more than two standard drinks daily. (Moderate drinking is associated with a modest reduction in breast cancer mortality.) Fetal alcohol syndrome occurs in infants born to mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy. 

Alcoholic hepatitis, pancreatitis, and gastritis may follow binge drinking. Fatty liver and esophagitis ensue from chronic use. Late-stage complications includecirrhosis and oral cancers.

Cerebellar degenerative disease, peripheral neuropathy, Wernicke’s encephalopathy, and Korsakoff’s dementia are among the serious neurologic consequences of alcohol excess.

Conclusion: Too much of alcohol is dangerous to your health.

Effectiveness of peer education interventions for HIV prevention & adolescent pregnancy

Peer education remains a popular strategy for health promotion and prevention, but evidence of its effectiveness is still limited. This article presents a systematic review of peer education interventions in the European Union that were published between January 1999 and May 2010. The objective of the review is to determine the effectiveness of peer education programs for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevention, adolescent pregnancy prevention and promotion of sexual health among young people. Standardized methods of searching and data extraction were utilized and five studies were identified. Although a few statistically significant and non-significant changes were observed in the studies, it is concluded that, overall, when compared to standard practice or no intervention, there is no clear evidence of the effectiveness of peer education concerning HIV prevention, adolescent pregnancy prevention and sexual health promotion for young people in the member countries of the European Union. Further research is needed to determine factors that contribute to program effectiveness.